Free Walden
Disability, Intersectionality. Autonomy, Human Rights,
and the Fight to Shut Down the Judge Rotenberg Center
Why Cop City Must Be Stopped:
When colonialism, race science, and eugenics
are embedded in our police systems
By KG 05-25-2023
Part 1: Murder, Traffic Stops, and Over-policing Black and Brown People
Many activists, journalists, family members, and citizens have reported on and written about what has happened to the many victims of police brutality. I have compiled their stories in hopes of illuminating the obvious pattern of mistreatment and abuse of power carried out by law enforcement in America.
Police Kill
1% of annual violent deaths and 4% of homicides are committed by on-duty police (2).
5% of annual gun homicides are committed by police (2).
The 6th leading cause of death for men ages 25-29 is fatal police violence (4).
On average, law enforcement kills over 1,000 people a year.
2019: 999 fatal police shootings (5)
2020: 1,021 fatal police shootings (5)
2021: 1, 048 (6)
2022: 1,097 (6)
Out of the 1,097 people killed by police in 2022, 313 were Black, 216 were Hispanic, and 17 were Native American (7, 8).
Despite making up only 14% of the US population, Black people represent 32% of those killed by police (8). They are less likely to be armed than white suspects (2), yet 3 times more likely to be murdered by police (1, 2, 9).
Native Americans are 2.2 times more likely than white people to be murdered by police (52, 53). Hispanic and Latino people are twice as likely than white people to be killed by police (10, 11).
Data regarding how many people are killed by law enforcement comes from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reporting Program and the CDC’s National Violent Death Reporting System. Participation in the FBI’s Crime Reporting Program is voluntary resulting in an under-reporting of police use of force (1).
The CDC’s National Violent Death Reporting System uses data from multiple sources and reports twice as many deaths as the FBI program, but it doesn’t collect data from every state (1). Regardless of the limitations, it is evident that police kill a lot of people while targetting and over-policing marginalized people.
Traffic Stops
This disparity can be seen in the 20 million yearly traffic stops that occur in America (12). Black and Hispanic drivers are pulled over at twice the rate as white drivers (12), despite being less likely to be carrying guns, drugs, or any type of illegal contraband (13). According to a 2020 study that looked at 1 million traffic stops, 32% of the white drivers who were searched had drugs on them as opposed to 19% of Black drivers and 24.3% of Hispanic drivers. Police are twice as likely to threaten and use force against Black and Hispanic people (14, 15, 16).
Sandra Bland
Photo Credit: Sandra Bland’s Linked In
Philando Castile
Photo Credit: fair use
Keaton Otis
Photo Credit: The Otis Family
On May 12, 2010, 25-year-old Keaton Otis was pulled over by Portland police for “fitting the description” of a gang member. Otis was Black and driving a nice car, which belonged to his mother. Cellphone footage of the incident shows police yelling “Tase him! Tase him” before tasing him. Keaton Otis is heard saying “I got my hands up” while sitting in the passenger seat of his mother’s car. An officer then says, “Let’s do it” and there is a barrage of 32 bullets being shot at him by several Portland police officers. 23 of the bullets hit him, killing him. Police claimed that Keaton Otis shot at them, but no gun or bullet casings were reported at the scene (17).
In 2015, Sandra Bland, a 28-year-old Black woman changed lanes without signaling because she thought the police officer behind her wanted to get by. Despite Bland’s compliance, the Texas State Trooper was hostile and yelled “Get out of the car! I will light you up. Get out!” Again, Bland complied but was arrested. Police claim she had killed herself while in custody 3 days after her arrest, but her family doesn’t believe that is the case (15, 18). Judging by the officer's hostility, it is possible that he was at fault.
Thirty-two-year-old Philando Castile was stopped by police 46 times in his lifetime. During the last “routine traffic stop” on July 6, 2016, Castile complied by giving officers his license and alerting them that he had a firearm, that he was legally allowed to carry, in the car. Officers told him not to reach for the gun. Castille and his girlfriend stated that he was not reaching for a gun, but an officer shot him 7 times at point-blank range, killing him in front of his girlfriend and her 4-year-old daughter (15, 19).
Tyre Nichols
Photo Credi: Tyre Nichols Facebook
Daunte Wright & son
Photo Credit: Ben Crump Law, PLLC. via AP
In January 2023, Tyre Nichols, a 29-year-old Black man was stopped 2 minutes away from his mother’s house by Memphis police officers who falsely claimed that he was driving recklessly. Officers pulled him from his car, tased and maced him. He broke free and started running towards his mother’s house, but 5 police officers caught up to him and proceeded to kick, punch, and beat him with batons until he died. Medics on the scene didn’t attempt to help him for 16 minutes (20, 21).
Daunte Wright used the wrong blinker when making a turn and was fatally shot in the chest (23, 51). Patrick Lyoya had mismatched plates and was fatally shot in the back of the head while he was restrained face-down on the ground (22). Jayland Walker was pulled over for a broken taillight and was shot at over 90 times, with 46 of the bullets hitting him (23).
Patrick Lyoya
Photo Credit: Courtesy: 102.5 FM
Jayland Walker
Photo Credit: The Walker Family
Racialized, Dehumanized, and Criminalized
Policing is inherently racist because it maintains racial stereotypes and social hierarchies created by white supremacists, race scientists, and eugenicists centuries ago.
White Europeans justified colonization, genocide, kidnapping, human trafficking, enslavement, brutalization, and murder by claiming they were superior and deserving while the Native Americans and Black people were intellectually, mentally, morally, and spiritually weak, less than human, uncivilized savages (24,26). Black people’s behavior was especially criminalized and pathologized. An enslaved Black person who wanted to run away was diagnosed with “drapetomania”, a type of mania characterized by urges to run that can only be cured by whippings and beatings (25). Slave patrols were formed to bring those running to freedom back to their abusers (1, 5).
After the Civil War, slave patrols were replaced by militia-style type groups and police who wanted to oppress and deny equal rights to freed slaves (5). Confederate physicians wrote textbooks stating that free Black people develop mental illness without slavery (27). In the 1880s, many leading psychiatrists claimed that Black Americans were unfit to live as independent, liberated citizens (28). These now-debunked assertions were touted by respected “men of science” and intellectuals, which made it easy for the general population to accept and disseminate.
Segregation Laws and Black Codes limited where Black people could live, where they could work, how much they would get paid, and if they could vote. Those who broke Jim Crow laws were subject to fines, arrests, incarceration, violence, and lynchings (29). This, of course, was enforced by law enforcement and angry white mobs.
Despite all the progress made over the past hundred years, police departments and angry white mobs continue to dehumanize and criminalize Black people, who are still stopped, whether in vehicles or on foot, at disproportionately high rates (14, 15). Whether they have committed a crime or not Black people are treated with suspicion, hostility, and violence by law enforcement and white people. Ultimately, Black people don’t get to enjoy public space like white people (30,31).
Ku Klux Klan. 1921 or 1922. Photo Credit: Herbert A French
Black-owned homes and businesses burned to the ground by a white mob in Tulsa, Oklahoma. May 31-June 1, 1921
Photo Credit: Unknown author-Unknown source
Elizabeth Eckford, one of the first Black students to attend Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957
Photo Credit: Will Counts/Yale University Press
Jennifer Schulte calling the police on Black people trying to have a barbecue in April 2018.
A white mob terrorizes Black people in a car for 4 hours in Clinton, Tennessee. 1956. Photo Credit: Robert W. Kelley The LIFE Picture Collection/Shutterstock
Racists protesting Black students being admitted to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1959.
Photo Credit: John T Bledsoe/PhotoQuest/Getty Images
Alison Ettel calling the police on an 8-year-old selling water onJune 23, 2018.
Amy Cooper on May 25, 2020.
Neverending Karens
White mobs are rowdy and conspicuous with their messages of hate, but a singular white woman can do just as much damage. A "Karen"s job is to patrol the streets, parks, and public lands looking for Black people. Armed with only a cell phone, a "Karen" will approach a Black person (or group of Black people) and accuse them of doing something wrong or illegal. Once they respond a "Karen" will falsely accuse the Black person/people of being hostile and aggressive. Then they call the police, exposing Black people to further violence.
“Bar-be-que Becky” (Jennifer Schulte) calls the cops on Black people for grilling up food (32), “Permit Patty” (Alison Ettel) calls the cops on an 8-year-old Black boy selling water (33), and Central Park "Karen", Amy Cooper loses her shit when a Black man wants to birdwatch (34).
“There is an African American man—I am in Central Park—he is recording me and threatening myself and my dog. Please, send the cops immediately!" -Amy Cooper
Trayvon Martin
Ahmoud Arbery
17-year-old Trayvon Martin was racially profiled and murdered by a wanna-be cop while walking from a convenience store to his father’s house (35). 25-year-old Ahmaud Arbery was run down, beaten, and murdered by 3 white men while he was jogging (36).
Stephon Clark
Photo Credit: Sonia Lewis
Botham Jean.Photo Credit: Botham Jean's Facebook
Breonna Taylor
Photo Credit: AP Photo/Chris O'Meara
Being on their own property or inside the home isn’t even safe. In March 2018 police murdered Stephon Clark in his grandmother’s backyard because they mistook the cell phone he was holding for a gun that was pointed at them (37). On September 6, 2018, an off-duty Dallas police officer, Amber Guyger, entered the wrong apartment thinking it was hers and murdered Botham Jean, a 26-year-old Black man who was sitting on the couch watching tv and eating ice cream. She claimed she thought he was a burglar (38). On March 13, 2020, 7 Louisville Metro Police Department busted into the wrong apartment and murdered Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old Black woman, while she slept in her bed (39).
Segregation and Overpolicing Communities
Police have consistently preserved anti-Blackness while serving white interests which maintains segregation (40, 41).
Current segregated neighborhoods and residential patterns are the results of deliberate discriminatory practices (zoning laws, redlining, and federal policies incentivized homeownership for white people) and acts of racial violence. Local governments, private developers, and financial institutions invested in white neighborhoods while ignoring Black residents confined to predetermined non-white communities (40).
There is a profound difference, still, between white and Black communities when it comes to employment opportunities, poverty rates, access to adequate schools and healthcare, and exposure to crime, police violence, and environmental hazards (40). Cities have chosen not to invest in poor, marginalized communities (40). Instead, these neighborhoods are over-policed which causes stress, trauma, and further marginalization (15, 31, 40, 42). It is not surprising that law enforcement finds more crime in Black, Brown, and/or low-income neighborhoods than in the middle to upper-class white neighborhoods they fail to police (31). They simply don’t systemically target, harass and surveil those people.
"If you stick a knife in my back 9 inches and pull it out 6 inches, there's no progress. If you pull it all the way out, that's not progress. The progress is healing the wound that the blow made.. And they won't even admit the knife is there." -Malcolm X
Stop and Frisk
Evidence of blatant targeting of non-white people can be seen in the data from New York City’s “Stop and Frisk” policy, which allowed police officers to stop, interrogate, and search anyone on the basis of “reasonable suspicion”. Neither Mayor Bloomberg nor the NYPD gave a fuck about the Fourth Amendment, so they proceeded to victimize and unreasonably search Black and Hispanic New Yorkers. Black and Hispanic people were stopped at 9 times the rate of white people (15, 43). Between 2004 and 2012 the NYPD made 4.4 million “stop and frisk” stops (44). 80% of those stopped were Black or Hispanic (44). Just like the national data from traffic stops (13, 45), white New Yorkers were twice as likely to have a weapon on them and three times more likely to have drugs (44).
Not only was “Stop and Frisk” racist, but it also diminished trust between New Yorkers and law enforcement, and between communities and community members. It was also completely ineffective at solving or preventing crime. Only 6% of stops between 2009 and 1012 resulted in an arrest and only .1% of the stops resulted in the conviction of a violent crime (15, 42, 43).
This was not known at the time. What was known was only what was seen and what was seen on many New York City streets was Black and Hispanic people being constantly stopped and searched by police. Sometimes it was one person, sometimes three, sometimes a line of ten people lined up against the wall with their hands behind their heads and a pack of NYPD officers rifling through their shit like hungry wolves. Appearances are everything, so regardless of whether the police found anything illegal, “Stop and Frisk” gave the impression that the people being searched had done something wrong (15, 46).
Eric Garner Photo Credit: CNN
After 9 years of terrorizing Black and Brown New Yorkers, in 2013, Judge Shira A Scheindlin ruled that “Stop and Frisk” violated the 4th Amendment prohibiting unreasonable search and seizure (44). This did not deter the NYPD from terrorizing Black New Yorkers, though. A year later the NYPD would stop Eric Garner, a Black man living in Staten Island, on the suspicion that he was selling individual cigarettes. They grabbed, choked, and pinned Garner to the ground in an attempt to arrest him. He said “I can’t breathe” 11 times before he stopped breathing (47).
Researchers at John Jay College looked at New York City’s enforcement rates from 2003 to 2018 and found that Black neighborhoods are still policed at a disproportionately higher rate (30, 48).
In 2018, Black people were stopped 5.8 times more than white people in NYC.Some of the most frequent offenses were related to drugs and alcohol.Black 16 and 17-year-olds were 9 times more likely than white 16 and 17-year-olds. Black 18 to 20-year-olds were 7.8 times more likely than white 18 to 20-year-olds. Black 21 to 24-year-olds were 7.8 times more likely (30).
Gentrification
Gentrified neighborhoods are also more likely to be over-policed. The Urban Displacement Project defines gentrification as “a process of neighborhood change that includes economic change in a historically disinvested neighborhood —by means of real estate investment and new higher-income residents moving in - as well as demographic change - not only in terms of income level, but also in terms of changes in the education level or racial make-up of residents.” (49).
When higher-income white people move into Black communities areas that have historically been economically neglected reports regarding non-emergency nuisance or disorder crimes(loitering, noise complaints) increase, which increases policing and surveillance (41). Between 2012 and 2016 calls to 311 (the non-emergency City services and information about City government programs) rose by 70% in neighborhoods that were gentrifying (41).
Basically, where rich white folks go, law enforcement follows. Police consciously decide to increase their patrolling in gentrified neighborhoods in order to protect investors of the newly reinvented community. It’s called “development-directed policing” (50). Higher rents and police presence forces many Black, Brown, and lower-income people to leave (41).
Daanika Gordon, an assistant professor of sociology in the School of Arts and Sciences for Tufts studied policing strategies in two different districts in a Rust Belt city-a affluent, predominantly white, upper-class, residential neighborhood and a predominantly Black and poor neighborhood. In the white upper-class area, the police are responsive, quick, thorough, and helpful, working with business owners and residents to solve problems. Police in Black areas are aggressive, use intimidation, intervene with violence, and take longer to respond to 911 calls. Black and lower-income communities are under-policed when it comes to emergency services (15, 40).
In Conclusion, white and Black Americans experience this country differently because our society has failed to address and repair its racist past. Nowhere is this more evident than in policing, where law enforcement officers use their power and privilege to further oppress, silence, erase, and control Black, Brown, Native American people, disabled, and/or mentally ill people.
References
(1) Sonya M. Shadravan, Matthew L. Edwards, and Sarah Y. Vinson “Dying at the Intersections: Police-Involved Killings of Black People With Mental Illness” June 10, 2021. Psychiatric Services. Volume 72. Issue 6. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202000942
(2) DeGue S, Fowler KA, Calkins C. Deaths Due to Use of Lethal Force by Law Enforcement: Findings From the National Violent Death Reporting System, 17 U.S. States, 2009-2012. Am J Prev Med. 2016 Nov;51(5 Suppl 3):S173-S187. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2016.08.027. PMID: 27745606; PMCID: PMC6080222. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6080222/
(3) Lois Beckett “One in 20 US homicides are committed by police – and the numbers aren’t falling” February 15, 2023. The Gaurdian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/feb/15/us-homicides-committed-by-police-gun-violence
(4) NAACP. “Criminal Justice Fact Sheet” Retrieved May 10, 2023. https://naacp.org/resources/criminal-justice-fact-sheet
(5) “Slave Patrols” NAACP. Retrieved April 19, 2023.https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/origins-modern-day-policing#:~:text=The%20origins%20of%20modern%2Dday,runaway%20slaves%20to%20their%20owners.
(6) “Number of people shot to death by the police in the United States from 2017 to 2023, by race” Statista.com. https://www.statista.com/statistics/585152/people-shot-to-death-by-us-police-by-race/
(7) “Number of people killed by police in the United States from 2013 to 2022, by ethnicity”
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1124036/number-people-killed-police-ethnicity-us/
(8) Title: Deaths Due to Use of Lethal Force by Law Enforcement Personal Author(s): DeGue, Sarah;Fowler, Katherine A.;Calkins, Cynthia; Published Date : Nov 2016
Source : Am J Prev Med. 51(5 Suppl 3):S173-S187.
URL : https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/57907
(9) Nicquel Terry Ellis “After the death of another mentally ill person in police custody, experts call for widespread training and health resources” August 11, 2022. CNN.
https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/11/us/brianna-grier-mental-illness-police-response-reaj/index.html
(10) Nicole Chavez “An estimated 2,600 Latinos were killed by police or in custody in the past six years, preliminary report says” June 21, 2021. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/28/us/latinos-police-brutality-report/index.html
(11) Jacqueline Howard “Black men nearly 3 times as likely to die from police use of force, study says” December 20,2016. CNN
https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/20/health/black-men-killed-by-police/index.html
(12) Pierson, E., Simoiu, C., Overgoor, J. et al. A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States. Nat Hum Behav 4, 736–745 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0858-1
(13) New York University News Release “Research Shows Black Drivers More Likely to Be Stopped by Police” May 5, 2020.
(14) Alexi Jones “Police stops are still marred by racial discrimination, new data shows” October 12, 2018. Prison Policy Initiative.
(15) Nicole Cardoza “The Cycle of Harm in Over-Policing Black and Brown Communities” July 5, 2020. Anti-Racist Daily.
https://the-ard.com/2022/07/05/the-cycle-of-harm-in-over-policing-black-and-brown-communities/
(16) Reimagining Community Safety in California “From Deadly and Expensive Sheriffs to Equity and Care-Centered Wellbeing” October 2022. Catalyst California and ACLU Southern California.
(17) The killing of Keaton Otis. Justice for Keaton Otis.
https://justiceforkeatonotis.wordpress.com/2013/01/27/keaton-otis-a-detailed-review/
(18) Oliver Laughland “Sandra Bland: video released nearly four years after death shows her view of arrest” May 7, 2019. The Guardian.
(19) Johnathan Blanks “Stop Overpolicing:Excessive traffic and pedestrian stops, especially in black communities, are dangerous and counterproductive” October 2020. Reason. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2018/10/12/policing/?utm_medium=email&_hsmi=218612879&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--iVU12xvqnfsndWU7hrREkDvEkr8Dv3DqK49lvrteGB3mEP-s2y0iBroIosX0Wb-CyJ-YDoRBRE6ghYCwuCrXJSc3G9w&utm_content=218612879&utm_source=hs_email
(20) Jonathan Franklin and Emma Bowman “What we know about the killing of Tyre Nichols” Updated January 28. NPR.
https://www.npr.org/2023/01/28/1151504967/tyre-nichols-memphis-police-body-cam-video
(21) Killing of Tyre Nichols. (2023, May 17). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Tyre_Nichols
(22) Sam Levin “US police have killed nearly 600 people in traffic stops since 2017, data shows” April 21, 2022. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/apr/21/us-police-violence-traffic-stop-data
(23) Killing of Jayland Walker. (2023, April 27). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Jayland_Walker
(24) Lizzie Wadethe “Ghosts in the Museum” July 6, 2021. Science.org https://www.science.org/content/article/racist-scientist-built-collection-human-skulls-should-we-still-study-them
(25) Oxford Reference “Drapetomania” Retrieved May 10, 2023
https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095730308
(26) Tania Das Gupta. Race and racialization : essential readings. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Race-and-racialization-%3A-essential-readings-Gupta/5997c213efb824bf8a3b1091450d43abc433f726
(27) Lindsay JA. The passing of the great race, or the racial basis of european history. Eugen Rev. 1917 Jul;9(2):139–41. PMCID: PMC2942213
(28) Psychiatry Confronts Its Racist Past, And Tries To Make Amends
By Addrew Shawn On May 1, 2021
https://vervetimes.com/psychiatry-confronts-its-racist-past-and-tries-to-make-amends/
(29) History.com writers “Jim Crow Laws” FEBRUARY 28, 2018. UPDATED: APRIL 11, 2023. History.com https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/jim-crow-laws#black-codes
(30) Andrea Cipriano “‘Overpolicing’ Still Common in NYC Black Neighborhoods, Report Finds” September 23, 2020. The Crime Report.
(31) Brandon Hasbrouck “Overpolicing breaks Black and Brown communities. What can we build instead? Updated December 6, 2022. The Boston Globe.
(32) Christina Zhao “'BBQ Becky,' White Woman Who Called Cops on Black BBQ, 911 Audio Released: 'I'm Really Scared! Come Quick!'” September 4, 2018. Newsweek.
(33) Pat Alison Ettel contacted the authorities to report Jordan's actions.
“Permit Patty: Woman 'calls police' on eight-year-old for selling water” June 20, 2018. BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-44601668
(34) Central Park birdwatching incident. (2023, May 19). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Park_birdwatching_incident
(35) Killing of Trayvon Martin. (2023, May 22). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Trayvon_Martin
(36) Murder of Ahmaud Arbery. (2023, May 21). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery
(37) Eric Levenson and Madison Park “Sacramento police shot man holding cellphone in his grandmother’s yard” March 22, 2018. CNN.
https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/22/us/sacramento-police-shooting/index.html
(38) Murder of Botham Jean. (2023, April 26). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Botham_Jean
(39) Killing of Breonna Taylor. (2023, May 18). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Breonna_Taylor
(40) Robin Smyton “How Racial Segregation and Policing Intersect in America” June 17, 2020. Tufts University.
https://now.tufts.edu/2020/06/17/how-racial-segregation-and-policing-intersect-america
(41) “Housing, Neighborhood Change, & Overpolicing” Feb 22, 2021. National Low-Income Housing Coalition.
https://nlihc.org/resource/housing-neighborhood-change-overpolicing
(42) Adam Gabbatt “Stop-and-frisk: only 3% of 2.4m stops result in conviction, report finds” November 14, 2013. The Guardian.
(43) Al Baker “New York Minorities More Likely to be Frisked” May 12, 2010. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/13/nyregion/13frisk.html?utm_medium=email&_hsmi=218612879&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-9eSpeIbFHIulfbXO1BnznS418wsV2SbPbKORqx1MsrymS3GvbPAXwObuc9y6YwVpc9xlByrghHx74Xdh6eBDprm9Stgw&utm_content=218612879&utm_source=hs_email
(44) Taahira Thompson “NYPD’s Infamous Stop-and-Frisk Policy Found Unconstitutional” August 21, 2013. The Leadership Conference Education Fund.
(45) Catalyst California and the ACLU of Southern California “Reimagining Community Safety in California” October 2022.
(46) German Lopez “America needs to think more about the costs of policing
Jun 4, 2020. Vox.
(47) Killing of Eric Garner. (2023, May 19). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Eric_Garner
(48) Luke Scrivener, Allie Meizlish, , Erica Bond, , Preeti Chauhan “Tracking Enforcement Trends in New York City: 2003-2018” The Data Collaborative for Justice (DCJ) at John Jay College.
(49) “What are gentrification and displacement” Urban Displacement Project.
https://www.urbandisplacement.org/about/what-are-gentrification-and-displacement/
(50) “As Neighborhoods Gentrify, Police Presence Increases” The Urban Institute Initiative.
https://housingmatters.urban.org/research-summary/neighborhoods-gentrify-police-presence-increases
(51) Killing of Daunte Wright. (2023, May 18). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Daunte_Wright
(52) Staff “Native Americans ‘Disproportional’ Victims of Fatal Police Shootings” June 30, 2020. The Crime Report.
(53) Teran Powell “Native Americans Most Likely To Die From Police Shootings, Families Who Lost Loved Ones Weigh In” June 2, 2021. WUWM 89.7 FM Milwaukee’s NPR.